A New Politics of Agriculture in Kano-Nigeria: Groundnut ---

A New Politics of Agriculture in Kano-Nigeria: Groundnut for Chickens or Humans?

By

M. M. Yusif – WTO Mock Summit paper
08/01/09

Competition between chickens and human species for available groundnuts produced in Nigeria has become a struggle for survival. Daily Trust of Thursday 8 January, 2009 reported that “a cute scarcity of eggs has hit Kano due to scarcity of groundnuts which translates into growing rise of prices of poultry feed”.

Groundnuts (or peanuts) were produced in large quantities in Nigeria’s northern region. In 1961 Nigeria’s share of world groundnuts exports was 37.8 percent. In monetary terms from 1961 to 1964, the value of Nigerian groundnuts exports reached as much as 36.6 million pounds (plus another 6.5 million pounds of groundnut oil). Kano seemed the highest producer among the groundnuts producing states of northern Nigerian region as the distribution of northern region marketing board groundnuts purchases showed that in 1960-61 Kano provided 45% of all the purchases (Helleiner, 1966).

The groundnuts are shelled for all purposes including for export and other domestic usages. The shelled ones can be consumed without further processing. It is a rich foodstuff, of nutritious value in particular because of its high protein content. It is also an important source of oil both for export and domestic consumption. Furthermore, it is used for the manufacture of margarine, compound cooking fat ad directly as a cooking or salad oil.

In later years, roughly from 1966-1970 groundnut production began to decline and their export including the oil produced from them have declined and had made up only 17 to 26 percent of Nigeria’s exports. From 1970s to date there has been absolute decline of production and given the increasing modernization of Nigeria’s economy the exports of the peanuts products have stopped.

Some ideas of the less demand of peanuts needed in Europe and America could be seen by new brands of oil available there. Secondly, a new modern food have already evolved which need no oil to process. Thirdly, they have developed many alternative sources of oil from pigs, fish, poultry, livestock, etc by the type of meals used as their feeds.

The change of direction from peanuts as a source of oil could be seen in the mission of “Green Revolution”. This revolution was packaged to produce wheat and maize not as food to peasants of Nigeria but for the growing livestock and poultry projects in Europe and America. The emphasis on these had caused further decline and less importance of groundnuts production in Nigeria as in other West African region.

In order to meet the demands of EU and US Agricultural policies we have lost our groundnuts project. We don’t have to refer to any record of quantities produced because there is no any significant quantity to record. Indeed, we have also become importers of the nuts to meet some domestic food requirements.

What does worry us is that the millions of chicken now in Nigeria is being fed on food which every Nigerian from the poor to the rich is needed as food supplement. The groundnut cake in particular is the food of the poor. But a tone of groundnut cake was N16,000 but now it is N70,000. Yes! This means the poor must give up the groundnut cake as part of his diet. The same groundnut cake is used as poultry feed. Because of the price hike of the groundnuts cake the price of eggs has gone up beyond the ability of at least a middle class to afford. The said Daly Trust reported that before the scarcity a crate of egg was sold at N570 but when the scarcity appears in the state a crate is sold at N700. Also before the scarcity, a fresh egg was sold at N25, but now, after the price hike of the nuts it is sold at N30 to N35.

A final point, which shows light to further understanding of this problem is that the new politics of agriculture under the WTO multilateral trade regime is pushing Nigeria to a position of also declining poultry industry to become importer of chickens as it were of beef.

MILITARY SCIENCE AS A THEORY OF--- (POL 4301)

BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

MILITARY SCIENCE AS A THEORY OF GLOBALISATION

POL 4301: Military and Politics
2008/2009: First Semester


Instructor: M. M. Yusif
Mmyusif58@yahoo.com
Mmyusif07@yahoo.com
polbuk@yahoo.com
http://www.mmyusif.blogspot.com

Introduction

The title of the course as “Military and Politics” remains the same since it is introduced more than twenty five years ago. And yet in the last three decades the science of military and politics has seen many theoretical and paradigm changes. In the post-cold war period in particular, whereas there are no military regimes to study and analyse, but it is very clear that in many countries – both developed and developing – the power of the military in politics have increased, and generally its relationship with society has changed.

In many countries “the science of military” is been taught in Departments of political science, sociology or history or in political economy classes and war colleges. For many years now the title military and politics has disappeared but many other appropriate titles such as “Armed forces and society”. “Military sociology”; “Military theory and warfare”; Military organization”; etc. are given to capture a relevant subject matter.

The political science discipline in particular is n chaos. It is fast loosing its traditional scientific perspective. As it has gradually and systematically become a fragmented science, it his now building another body widely called “political studies” which combined many disciplines including their methods. Thus, in many countries, especially in Europe and America, the name political science is disappearing. Hardly an academic Department is now called Department of Political Science. This is bound to affect both the subject-matter and content of the original “military and politics” science.

Therefore, the focus of the course changes every academic session, since I have started teaching it. These are:
1. Military and Development 2001/2002 session
2. Military theory and practice 2002/2003
3. Military and Democratization 2003/2004
4. Globalisation and Militarisation 2004/2005
5. Military theories and strategy in the contemporary globalization 2005/2006
6. Military, state and society in the current era of globalization 2007/2008
7. globalization and postmodern military

These have paved ways for reconsideration of the traditional tools, approaches, and the subject-matter as well as the empirical grounds for analysis of “military and politics”. From theoretical perspective it is a shift of paradigm from modernization to post-modernist approach with which we are going to continue in the academic session (2008/2009).

However, in this academic session we are going to go deeper in our efforts to understand globalization from the point of view of military science. Hence, the focus is frame as “Military Science as a theory of gloalisation”.

Course Overview
The course in this academic session is another attempt to continue with what I have started six years ago i.e. re-imagining politics and society in teaching of POL 4301: “Military and Politics”. While it will take into consideration the traditional conception and paradigms in treatment of the subject, but will do away with them in order to see through the new changes taking place between military and science.

Yes! Neo-liberal globalization is like a revolution in every social relation. Every human organization changes as it cannot be sustained under the old rules. So is also the military. The military organization of many countries – in both developed and developing world – have already been transformed.

A close examination of the recent literature on “New Military and politics clearly indicates some new orientations. One is that globalisation is naturally militaristic, therefore the science of military pays attention to military strategy applied by major global institutions to achieve economic and other objectives. Secondly, the free market economy has produced and reproduced a conducive condition for production of instruments and agents of violence which has increased militarization of the society. Thirdly, as a result of the new global economic system, both states, organizations and individuals are facing threats from insecurity. Fourthly, globalization has come with many faces of terrorism, showing increasing militarization of social relations. Fifthly, as the society changes so are the militaries. What is conspicuous is that armed forces are changing both in the organization, structure, profession, method of war and civil military relations. Finally and most importantly is the idea that a New Military i.e. the post modern military has emerged. What is it and what is it not as well as its aspects such as organization, characteristics and relations with state and society are going to be explored.

The course will focus on the transformation of the military in the current era of globalization. Specifically on issues of the structure, professionalism, function, method of war and civil-military relations. In short, it is going to be on changing character of military organization under the forces of globalisation.

A critical understanding of military transformation from a postmodernist approach and theories would make us to cope with intricacies of changing perspectives and scope of “military and politics” and military in politics.

With this approach, a holistic method which combines economics, political science, international relations and political economy will evolve in the understanding of our premise that the use of force which is the essence of military also goes under transformation or as I have said earlier a “revolution”, in the current era of globalization.


In order to capture a perspective within political science studies we would start with the arguments on the scope and future of political studies. We would refer to the early literature on the teaching of “military and politics” and from there explore major texts on New Theoretical lines on the subject – which revolved around transformation of Armed forces.

Course Outline
1. Introduction: Introducing the course and what it involves; where is it in political science; course requirements; assessment of the programme by students; other issues;
2. Teaching of Military and politics today: comparative concepts and categories
3. Constructing military – Society Relation in the current: era of globalisation
4. Globalisation and expansion of military violence: David Helds Model
5. Military Organisation: Theoretical perspectives
6. Military forces in post-modern society: The post-modern military
7. Information Technology and Military Affairs
8. Postmodern warfare system
9. The New Civil-Military Relations system of the new military formations
10. Comparative studies of the new military organization
11. Conclusion I: Reports on project and response papers
12. Conclusion II: Critical comments on class experience




Readings
1. Paul Hirst, The future of political studies
2. Shu-Yun Ma, Political Science at the Edge of Chaos? The paradigmatic implications of Historical Institutionalism IPSR Vol. 28 No.1 (2007)
3. Hamid Hussain, Forbidden Fruit-Military and Politics
4. Ali A. Mazrui, Gloablisation between the market and the military: A Third World Perspective
5. Eboe Hutchful and Adoulaye Bathily (eds) The military and militarism in Africa
6. Paul Commack et al. Third World Politics: A Comparative Introduction
7. David Chuter, Defence Transformation. ISS Monograph
8. A.F. Klimenko, Globalisation and its impact on military politics and military strategy
9. Bragan M. Dueling, paradigms: Modernist versus post-modernist approach
10. Mary Klages, post-modernism
11. Arto Nokkala, constructing post-cold war military politics: The Finnish case in a strategic perspective
12. Chunakhra G. M. The Militarisation of politics and society
13. Gruta Swari; Theoretical postulation: A twin Van in understanding military and politics
14. Claude Serfati; Militarism and imperialism in the 21st Century
15. Timothy E. and others. The Armed forces and society: A framework for analysis
16. Robert cooper, the breaking of Nations: Order and Chaos in the Twenty-First Century
17. Boggs, Globalisation and New Militarism
18. Klepikov D.V. “On the theory of Military Organisation”
19. David Held et al, “Global transformation. Politics, Economics and Culture” Introduction, Chapters 1, 2 and conclusion
20. John Feffer, “Militarisation in the Age of globalization.
21. Yash Tandon, Globalisation and the South
22. Bradford Booth et al, Are post-cold war militaties postmodern.
23. Antony Foster, A Critique of the post-modern military thesis; the European challenge
24. Foster A. “The post modern military” the irony of strengthening defence”. The future of War Vol. 33 No.2
25. No name. The post –fordist military
26. No name: IT and Global Ruling class
27. Max Boot, The paradox of military technology
28. Paul T. M. Network centric warfare: Coalition operations in the age of US Military Primacy
29. Gerald Schmneider, War in the Era of Globalisation
30. Phillip Harmmond, Post-modernity goes to war
31. Richard H. K. The erosion of civilian control of the military in the USA today. Naval war college review vol. 48 No.3
32. Col. Charles J. D. Melancholy Reunion: A report from the future on the collapse of civil-military relations in the united states.
33. Kohn R. “Out of control: The crises of civil-military relation. Journal of public management Vol.10 No.2
34. Albright, D. “A comparative conceptualization of civil military relation”. World Politics Vol. 44 No.3
35. Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State: the theory and politics of civil military relation
36. Casta Tungaraza, “The transformation of Civil Military Relations” in Hutchful and Bathily.
37. Moskos C. et al (eds.). Te post-modern military: Armed forces after the cold war
38. John F. B. The Indonesian Military as a professional organization: Criteria for Ramifications for Reform
39. Janowitz. The professional solder
40. Kuhlman and collughan (eds) Military and society in 21st Centurt Europe: A comparative Analysis
41. Foster et al “Transforming post-communist militaries: professionalisation of Armed forces in central and Eastern Europe

Course Requirements
The last thirty minutes of each lecture period will be for discussion on some readings or other assignment given as weekly assignment. The weekly assignments are as important as the end of the semester examination. Any student who failed to do one weekly exercise will miss all the marks for the weekly class works.

Evaluation of students will be based on end of the semester examination (70%) and continuous Assessment (30%). On the CA students will normally be required to do so many things as follows:

1. Weekly Assignment
2. A small research project
3. Research Project Response paper
4. ICT usage for learning
5. Supervised test
6. Attendance
7. Poetry composition
8. Critical Comments on classroom experience
9. Working groups discussion

All other things of the requirement of class work in your 200 level also applied. Such as on plagiarism, the ways to improve quality of learning and research and how to praise and penalize hardworking and lazy students respectively.



S/N Authors Title Year
34 Adamu Ismail et al The current era of globalization and changing role of military formation and operations: USA 2007/08
35 Auwal Abubakar et al The science of military and world economic order: A Comparative Analysis of past and present 2007/08
36 Umar Danjuma et al Information technology and postmodern warfare system: A case of US Afghans war 2007/08
37 Hamza Marafa et al The Costs of Postmodern Military System in USA 2007/08
38 Zainul Abideen et al Military Expenditure in African Countries: Old and New 2007/08
39 Hamisu Idris et al Neo-liberal globalization and privatization of violence 200/08
40 Aliyu Zubairu et al Globalization and Military Formation: A case study of Britain 2007/08
41 Aminu Saleh Isyak et al Arms trade and military expenditure in the current era of globalization 2007/08
42 Ibrahim Amadu et al Postmodern Military Science 2007/08






Improve the Quality of Learning and Research Through

1. How to use internet to source reading materials
2. Assessing students examination papers: marking scheme
3. Enhancing students capacity in learning through the use of computer, internet and e-mail
4. introducing Team/Group work in large classes
5. Guidelines for effective performance by students
6. How to make patterned notes from texts
7. Writing examination: A communicative approach
8. How to write group semester paper in large classes
9. How to write book review
10. communicative writing: Exploring the concept
11. Taking note in classroom lectures or from a text
12. Using e-mail for teaching, learning and research
13. Using e-journals and e-books for, learning and research
14. Code of ethics in the class of M. M. Yusif
15. ICT for learning and Education: Beyond information
16. Criticism–Self–Criticism session
17. Guidelines for small research project
18. Progress Report on ICTs for Teaching, learning and Research
19. The underlying guides and principles for teaching in my class
20. Reflecting on teaching military and politics
21. How to do research: What are the problems
22. Information Age: Moving with ICTs to understand the world around us
23. Progress Report on the Teaching of Peace and Conflict Studies.
24. Principles of Teaching and Learning in my classes

Principles of Teaching and Learning in my Classes

Principles of Teaching and Learning in my Classes

This note is a reconstruction of a similar one titled “The underlying guides and principles of teaching in my classes” Circulated two years ago. The central message in that piece of note is that my teaching is guided by liberal principles of scholarship. That is to say we see every idea as not final and hence we accommodate diverse opinions.

It is around this principle am building further that in an ideal university environment both teachers and students are learners. Long time a go philosophers of education said that for the purpose of development of knowledge, in a university setting “every one is to think with each other”. There is no question of self-sufficiency or “I know better in knowledge”.

In political science as in other social sciences knowledge is built and developed by social enquiring and or by continuous reformulations of existing knowledge. In reality knowledge is daily being under rethink. It has no finality and there is no absolute truth. This is to say knowledge is science and it is a common principle of science that it is alien to certainty.

For both students and teachers, learning is confrontation with body of ideas that are contradictory and so for each idea you come across you search and or develop its contradictory version and so on. Adorno observed that absolute idea is a great lie.

From whatever angle you see a university system today, there s confusion and decline. By the side of students, they only attend lectures, take note and return the same to their teachers. They resist to read and become exposed to other ideas. They do not like to debate ideas. Those who do, disrespect the ethics of debate. When they are doing social investigation, especially of a survey type, they concoct data and claimed are collected, etc.

Neo-liberal reform is not reforming for academic excellence. It is a reform by international financial institutions and foundations whose documents had many years ago shown contempt of university education in Africa. So, they are only emphasizing reform of the administrative system, allowing the educational standard to continue to decline. Or are we still on transition to a better future?

I think however that those good things of the past are still beautiful to make the present better. In a similar discourse about the past and the present by Joao Paulo Borges Coelho in the centre of African studies, University of Mapotu, Mozambique, he observed that the past is important in order to operate as scholars in the present. Joao stressed that “this moment in the past, thirty years old, could be useful for our present and that it should therefore not be forgotten. At least …to consider to what extent the social sciences of thirty years ago, …can illuminate the social sciences of today, born f a totally different context”?

In University of Moputu as in other Universities in Africa Joao stressed three of the many principles of scholarship of the past which could raise the present, even among my students.

The first is the principle of diversity in teaching, learning and research. This is to say that students and teachers should embrace the logic of diverse academic perspectives in an effort to understand any social problem. An unchallenged idea whose contradictions are not searched and debated is monotonous. It makes classrooms not lively. Makes the teacher as the master of everything, who comes to impart knowledge. Instead of to make students to acquire knowledge.

In a healthy and civilized academic environment/classroom, acceptance of diverse ideas may generate battle and confrontation of perspectives between young students, which will continuously provoke learning, cooperation, and team work among students as was the case in my class of POL 4301 2007/2008 Academic Session.

The second principle of great value to learning and scholarship in the past which is needed to be brought back today is what Joao called “Hospitality”. He used the word Hospitality in the sense applied by Emmanuel Levinas as “a gesture of welcome, or a predisposition to receive the other, to receive he who is different from us in our midst”. Even if there are no visiting scholars to show hospitality to, we can give hospitality and respect to each other to create conducive condition for learning and growth of learning. This is fundamental to spread of ideas as somebody will bring an idea or perspective which you do not know.

One dangerous dimension to learning today is that young boys and girls who come to university carry along with them destructive competition. There is no accommodation and so no exchange of ideas. Only to try to outsmart a friend to pass examination better. These undermined quality of learning, create attitude of self-sufficiency in knowledge, the mania of feeling that, one is clever, etc. which are all indices of lack of hospitality among students.

The third principle is what Joao called “Trust”. This has to do with the relationships between society, politics and academia. In those olden days in Nigerian Universities there were both students and teachers whose purpose was to search, read and debate theories which will help to transform human suffering and improve quality of life. In contrast, there is very little of this past remaining. For students there is no personal search of theoretical perspectives to critically assess government policies. Politics is no longer their business. It is only to pass examinations by every means possible. For teachers there are few remaining whose purpose and values is not scholarship to earn money and to produce volumes of useless texts for the dominant authorities. The reversal of this will return scholarship as a social responsibility and excellence.

In addition to these I believe that it is our duty – both students and teachers – to work hard. I cannot shy away from Karl Marx, who said that the royal road to science/knowledge is hard work. Yes! Knowledge grows through hard work. By hard work one can explore his/her potentiality and can understand the University environment and the larger society better. The past of the University culture in Nigeria is distinguished by hard work. Each student was working hard to acquire knowledge.

This is sharply different from the present when students want pass examination but do not want work. When students abuse their teachers who give them books to read. When students are happy when their teachers missed their lecture periods. When students jubilate, when they heard their teacher who gives them work to do is going to be away from teaching service. When students cry on being attached to a research supervisor who will tell them to go and make corrections.

These are students of the present. Who do not know the value of hard work. The past is beautiful. Whatever changes will occur only the characteristics of the past will bring back the excellence. Or are we to give up to the information technology to do everything for us? In anyway IT itself has to be operated.

This past of scholarship in African Universities, I stress is glorious. All the good values of it are relevant to reconstructing of the present. If we allow them to come back by practicing them. Thus, we would be doing a good service by pulling this legacy here, again.

Meanwhile the structure of teaching and learning in my classes contain these legacy. The outcome depends on the students. Those who graduated in 2005/2006 and 2007/2008 Academic sessions have contributed a great deal towards bringing back these principles.

M. M. Yusif
Department of Political Science
Bayero University, Kano-Nigeria
January, 2009

THE STALEMATE IN THE WTO: REPOSITIONING THE---

WTO MOCK SUMMIT
DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO Nigeria



BRIEFING PAPER: NO.2


THE STALEMATE IN THE WTO: REPOSITIONING THE GLOBAL TRADE ORGANISATION OR TO CEASE TO EXIST


BY

M. M. YUSIF – DIRECTOR OF THE MOCK SUMMIT

2009


Introduction
The Doha Round Trade and Development promises is the major issue which has produced the bomb now threatening the ever powerful global institution managing international trade i.e. World Trade Organisation (W.T.O). From the Doha through Concun to Hong Kong the Ministerial Summits of the Organisation nearly collapsed, sending message that the Great Trade Monitor is in crisis which we don’t yet know the end.

But it is clear that the WTO regime is at risk. As if all members from the developing world wanted an opening to pour out their dissatisfaction with the WTO multilateral system, many other issues are joined on the Doha Agenda, all to be resolved before the legitimacy of the trade regime is accepted.

Indeed, since Doha Minestrial Conference in 2001 there had been many negotiations on implementation of the Agenda, yet there is no progress. The united state of America (US) and European Union (EU) in particular have refused to concede over their differences on agricultural trade issues.

This problem is further illustrated by a stalemate, that three years after Hong Kong, Ministrial conference is not convened. A violation of the constitution of WTO that the Ministers summit meets not more than every two years (Yusif M. M. 2008).

This briefing paper on the WTO Mock Summit 2009 predicts two scenario for WTO-Regime:
1. The organisation will be re-positioned by making some reforms to accommodate some interests of the developing countries.
2. Alternatives to the WTO multilateral trade system would be constructed by the rich countries and allow the WTO to die.
Prelude to Doha Development Round
Less than five years after the Uruguay Round it became very obvious that Third World Country members of the Great WTO are not satisfied with the emerging New Multilateral Trade Regime.

It is not surprising as the many years of consultation and negotiation which finally ended in Uruguay Round did not involve countries from the developing world. The major issues and conflict were between the US and EU and were resolved before the GATT Uruguay Round was convened to ratify the agreement where the developing countries were coerced to endorse.

Form the beginning the regime was set up on an undemocratic foundation. The history of the UR recorded that a document of over five hundred pages containing what is called “Uruguay Agreements” was first seen by developing country members at the meeting and was swiftly approved, establishing WTO-multilateral trade regime.

The new regime came with many promises, including on issues beyond trade such as trade-related intellectual property; trade related investment measures; and the trade in services. These are entirely new provisions from the old regime i.e. GATT. Agricultural trade too, though is not new but many of its old provisions are altered. The developing countries were not engaged and or even allowed to ask questions. On studying these and the other provisions, after ratification of the URA, they found that the New Trade Regime is not in any way to promote development in the former colonial countries.

The drastic scheme of the WTO system to subordinate global trade to overall interests of the US, has made the third world countries to take it that now they are in a second colonisation. They have seen in particular from the provisions of intellectual property right that they can never see the industrialisation and technological development of their countries. They have come to realise that it is difficult to meet international standard of patent right on even their traditional knowledge, as they would forever rely on big corporations from Europe and America.

Nevertheless, the new trade regime had to be tolerated, monitored and watched both by members and non-members to the next round of trade negotiations. The next after the Uruguay was the Singapore 1996.

The Singapore was more or less successful. The poor countries did not fully understand the tricks of the rich. They only fervently opposed introduction of new issues, before the old ones of the UR are clarified and thrashed out. The Singapore Round was simple. Less controversial, it was closed quietly with expectation that before the next round, an agreement will be found on all the UR issues.

The EU however, came up with additional issues called the “Singapore issues” to add on what would be on the agenda for talks before the next round. These are;
1. investment protection,
2. competition policy,
3. transparency in government procurement, and
4. trade facilitation

To a greater or lesser degree, because of differences between the US and the EU, these were rejected, except the issues on trade facilitation, which further the victory of developing country members of the organisation.

The interim between Singapore to the next and second round of trade negotiations i.e. Seattle 1999 did not come easy. The trade talks did not bring any positive result. Instead more polarisation in the multilateral trading system began to appear. The traditional divide between US and EU became sharper on agricultural and the Singapore issues. On the other hand the EU, US, Japan and major agricultural exporting countries (Argentina; Australia; Bolivia; Brazil; Canada; Chile; Costa Rica; Columbia; Guatemala; Indonesia; Malaysia; New Zealand; Pakistan; Paraguay; The Philippine; South Africa; Thailand; and Uruguay) were divided on issues of export subsidies and import restrictions on agricultural products. Furthermore, the increasing importance of newly industrialised countries in South-East Asia and the rapidly developing economies of Brazil; Russia; India; and China; looks as the international trading system becomes increasingly multi-polar (EU, 2007:2).

It is obvious that these differences made the WTO multilateral trade system dictatorial and intolerant to the interest of member countries from the developing world. In reality, the WTO-Regime became more as an appendage of the USA, regulating the global multilateral trade system for corporate interest of USA.

Thus, the seattle 1999 was conducted most undemocratically in order to push for unfavourable trade agreements on the controversial URA issues. The global civil society groups had earlier intercepted a document by EU on multilateral Agreement on investment which contained provisions of re-colonisation of the former colonial countries. On market access to the developed world the US insisted that it is conditional on observation of international labour standards. On URAA both EU and US refused to shift from their positions.

The scenario of the summit became tense. The developing member countries were not ready to enter into any trade agreement. Meanwhile civil society organisations from all over the world had already gathered to oppose and disrupt the conference. A combination of anti-WTO forces, of violent street protests and the reluctance of developing countries to accept US and EU bullying on agriculture, labour standards and investment protection made the summit to collapse. However, the failure did not seem to come as a result of violence but because the major players in the WTO power structure were short of becoming victorious in the trade negotiations.

The failure of the negotiations indicate that the WTO multilateral trade regime is in crisis and for the first time it shows that the developing countries would not easily accept the EU-US dominated trading system.

The Doha Development Agenda: Spring-Board of the WTO-Trade Regime Crisis
The seattle 1999 did not achieve anything. Contradictions and divisions between the rich and poor country members of the WTO continued to deepen. On the other hand divisions are taking another turn between the rich nations.

At the level of global relationships between the poor and rich countries, the globalisation of trade, finance and investment has raised several important questions related to globalisation and development of developing countries. One issue of immediate concern was the militarization of global economic system. The US of the George Bush Presidency became the “police of the world”. To conquer any country which has refused to pursue its economic and political interests.

It was in grappling with these problems that it became clearer that the developed countries wanted another round of trade negotiations, perhaps to soften their positions. They were worried that the terrorist attacks of 9/11 demanded fast promises for development of underdeveloped countries.

Here, it must be admitted that the industrialised countries were eager for another round of negotiations, but the developing countries were not. It is said that the latter group of countries were disturbed about the undemocratic process of the WTO-Regime, and the actual trade issues themselves. A media once reported that “African Trade Ministers and Civil Society Organisations were opposed to the new round because the WTO processes are being undemocratic and opaque, rather than transparent (Anup S. 2002:3). Other less developed countries like India vehemently resisted any new round of talks to discuss so-called “new issues” for the non-democratic nature of the whole process (ibid).

However, the weaker developing states were put under pressure by more, powerful nations to accept another round of trade negotiations. Thus, the fourth WTO Ministerial conference in Doha Qatar in November 2001. It was deceptively dubbed the “development” round to appease poor countries with a so-called agenda for “trade and development”

After rejection by the US of the provision of development for poor countries in the Havana Charter which established International Trade Organisation, the Doha Development Round is the first round of multilateral trade negotiations committed to treating development issues as a principle of international trade.

To the extent that if some theoretical perspectives on “trade and development” could be displayed, and if the “special and differential Treatment Principles” are not on URAA, one can easily say that the name “Development Round” is a misonomer as the Doha 2001 is concluded with unspecified promises aimed at rectifying the imbalance from the original “Uruguay Round” of multilateral negotiations that established the WTO.

These promises from the point of view of developing countries are the agreements on liberalisation of Agriculture and Services as well as on the Trade-Related intellectual property. But both the EU and US have insisted that other issues should also make part of the agenda, including market access for non-agricultural products as well as the so-called “Singapore issues” referred above.

Consequently, the promise of development for underdeveloped members of the WTO did not change the perspective of the rich nations on the poor ones. Indeed, both in the consultations leading to the Doha Round, and in the outcomes of the summit, developing countries on the whole had actually been marginalised and ignored, once again (Anup S. 2006:4).

What is clear is that, contrary to the claims of most observers, media and trade representatives of developed countries, Doha did not launch a “development round”. The point is that the Doha 2001, in fact, contradicts the interest of the developing countries. They were coerced to attend. They attended and lost again.

While the developing countries had lost again, a broad coalition of 100 member countries grouped and put a battle for a minimum concession to agree to carry on with negotiations, especially on URAA and for a just WTO system. Thus, they succeeded in getting the summit to conclude with a position to continue with negotiations on the implementation of the controversial URA. This implementation clause which is still being pursued, and yet no shift of position is what is commonly called the “Doha Agenda”.

Implementation of Doha Agenda: A Crisis Rocking the WTO-Regime
The Doha Round was in 2001 but the negotiations are still taking place. Progress has been slow and protracted. Every multilateral trade negotiation is now based on Doha Agenda, yet there is no shift of position by the players. Two Minestrial Summits – Concun in 2003 and Hong Kong in 2005 had virtually collapsed because of failure to reach agreement on Doha “Development Agenda (Yusif M.M. 2008).

I have raised a question last year and I think it is appropriate to put it again. The question is: “Three years after Hong Kong the most powerful international organisation, managing and moving the current globalisation’ has gone to sleep and still not awake. What is happening” (ibid:08).

It is not necessary to make a lenthy comment on the obvious reality of the great global trade manager. Yet! It continues to exist but the failure to shift positions on the “Doha Development Agenda” makes it less active. As if it does not exist. In July, 2006, in a Geneva meeting, there was hope to conclude the Doha Round, yet it failed to reach an agreement about reducing farming subsides and lowering import taxes. The 2007 meeting at Potsdam and another at Geneva in July 2008 did not break the stalemate.

The failure of the negotiations, had made the future of the Doha Development Round and the WTO multilateral trade system more uncertain. All further trade negotiations were finally suspended after last ditch talks between the EU, US, India, Japan, Australia, and Brazil failed to reach a compromise on the issue of agriculture liberalisation.

However, in December 2008, the Director General of the WTO released another document of a package on the issue of agriculture liberalisation to be on negotiation between 13th – 18th at Geneva. This initiative is already being rejected by interest groups around the world. In Japan about 3,000 farmers across the country staged a rally on Tuesday, December 9, 2008 in Tokyo urging the Government not to make any compromise unfavourable for the country’s agriculture, if trade Ministers decide to meet in Geneva (Trade observatory: 12 2008:1). Similarly, a bipartisan group of 22 US lawmakers of the Senate observed, that a new negotiating text for a World Trade Organisation deal on agriculture contains substantial loopholes that would limit US access to foreign markets should be rejected (ibid:2).


In this context the impasse in the WTO multilateral trade system may likely take an extended period of time to be broken. From the point of view of US, any further trade negotiations may not be held until after President Barrack Obama constituted a new Trade Promotion Authority (TPA) of the White House. As it is observed that the TPA enables the White House to negotiate trade deals with a guarantee that the US congress will vote on these deals as a package without being able to make any amendments. Without TPA, every part of a deal would be scrutinised by congress, making any deal close to impossible (EU, 2007:4).

Finally, it is worthy to note that the failure of Doha Round negotiations is not strictly because of contracdictory development interests between the rich and the poor countries. On the other hand, inspite of the “Blair House Accord” between the US and EU, there is still disagreement between them over agriculture liberalisation. Moreso, the EU participated in the Doha Round negotiations with intention to challenge the position of the US in multilateral trade negotiations and to impose its own agenda of regulatory and non-trade issues i.e. the four Singapore issues”. On the other hand the developing countries too do not constitute a homogeneous bloc with indivisible common interest. Many alliances and coalitions were created around many issues. There is the G20 alliance formed around the issues of agricultural trade. There is also the G33. Members of the latter group which is formed in cancun are importers of agricultural products, many of them also single group producers and exporters. The G33 countries demand exceptions for certain products as full liberalisation could badly hurt their economies and populations (Yusif, M. M. 2008:5). There are other groups with different interests. The group of 4 i.e. G4, the strongest economies of the developing world are becoming powers that must be consulted on any controversial issue in multilateral trade negotiations.

Is there a way out?
In the present situation, there is no progress in sight on making, a deal on “Doha Development Round”. This problem is illustrated by series of negotiations, consultative meetings, experts advices, discussions at various national fora by interest groups, yet no serious solutions for getting out of the general impasse. In fact, there is no clear path to follow as every country and or group of countries have stood inflexible forever.

As there is increased broadening of the issues, and better understanding of their implications for further under-development of the developing countries, it is becoming more difficult to find a brake on the stalemate. From issues on cotton initiatives, agricultural subsidies, industrial goals, trade facilitation, services, intellectual property and public health, now the demands of the poor countries include also the conduct of WTO in taking decision, bureaucratisation of the WTO management of global trade and lack of transparency. Consequently, even if there is minimum understanding, the “safety safeguard mechanism” principle would forestall reaching a deal.

As far as ways out of the deadlock are concerned, prospects are not bright. Walden Bello, a global trade analyst once asked a question whether “the WTO would rise from death like Dracula”. He added that the collapse of the Doha negotiations and subsequently the death of the WTO is one of the best things to happen to the developing countries in a long while. This also coincides with the view of chossudousky who observed that “there can be no other alternative but to reject the WTO as an international institution, to imprint the WTO as an illegal organisation. In other words, the entire process must be rejected outright” (cited by Nick, B. 2000).

It is obvious that the developing countries, especially the poorest ones may not have any stake to continue with the negotiations. Among developed countries there are different levels of support. While the US, EU, UK, Japan, Italy, Germany and Canada have shown only low compliance with WTO secretariat to continue with the negotiations, France is not enthusiastic at all.

Nothing suggests that the developed countries have spoken against the WTO paradigm of global trade, but apparently they are building alternatives to WTO. Both US and EU are gradually moving from a policy that priorities multilateral trade negotiations to a policy focusing on bilateral and regional trade arrangements. In the United Sate of America, under the Bush Administration, this strategy became an official US trade policy. This is packaged as “competitive liberalisation that promotes trade liberalisation simultaneously on multiple fronts – bilaterally, regionally, multilaterally and plurilaterally.
Throughout the period of George Bush this concept of trade is translated into reality. US negotiated regional agreements with central American countries (CAFTA); Africa (AGOA); Latin America (FTAA); US Andean (FTA); then Free Trade Area agreement with Malaysia, South Korea and Thailand; and several others including a Middle-East and North African Free Trade Project, as well as with ASEAN. These are in addition to many bilateral agreements with Chile, Singapore Australia, Bahrain, etc. This is also the case with EU which is involved in many bilateral trade arrangements, while also in regional agreements with some groups e.g. ACP; MERCOSUR and the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC).

An offensive to create trade blocs to promote free trade, but the ultimate goal is to capture and fortified areas of trade interests by the major powers in the event of trade war and protectionism. As the commerce secretary of the United State of America alluded in Fareed Zakaria programme in the CNN, the US is moving towards protectionism. He added, not next year, but in the next five to ten years (CNN, 12 2008).

The picture that emerges from all these is unequivocal. That there are two scenarios for the future of the WTO:
i) WTO would cease to exist or
ii) It would be reformed to become a really global common market monitor

The collapse of several Doha negotiation meetings (Cancun 2003; Geneva 2004, Paris 2005; Hong Kong 2005; Geneva 2006; Potsdam 2007; Geneva 2008); has made it that the WTO has become less effective and its rules are gradually becoming less useful for addressing global trade issues. As noted above the US and EU are already constructing alternatives to WTO multilateral trade regime.

Through this strategy, which continues to be displeasing the developing countries, both US and EU refused to be flexible on particularly agriculture liberalisation. One interest group in USA noted that for US agriculture may be better off without deal. Various other interest groups of small farmers and manufacturers are pressing the government of United State of America for further liberalisation of global trade in plurilateral way.

Whereas the EU wanted to make little concession to the poorest developing countries, by a trickish calculations of reducing domestic support to farmers, but in a trade-off to accept the “Singapore issues”.

In view of the above what would happen in case the US and EU take the extreme option to withdraw from the WTO structure? Another global trading system would evolve? Would it mean the WTO-regime may remain dead, never to rise up again like “Dracula” or what would really be the environment of global trade?

Nevertheless, unless the global power relations shifted from where it is, the withdrawal of US and EU from the WTO system may practically not necessarily going to be in the interest of the developing countries. In fact, this will represent no solution. The situation could lead to extreme competitive liberalisation and at the same time protectionism. The poor countries will be at the receiving end – armed – twisted, bullied and coerced by this or that rich country to be in trade relationship. Their products could be at the lowest price in the global market. The developed countries may revert to trade conflict of the early twentieth century which could bring global wars.

More precisely, a strategy aimed at reform of the WTO system may be more clearly beneficial for poor countries. After the collapse of many Doha Round negotiations, it looks that the WTO will not be able to continue in its present form. There has to be fundamental changes in order for it to meet the needs and interests of all its members, both from developed and developing countries.

The need of changes in the WTO will be followed by a question as what are the fundamental problems on which the question of reform hinges? These are some of them:
i) The power relationship and subsequently the power structure, is built on inequalities, both in the dynamics and objectives of the bureaucratic and policy processes of the WTO.
ii) That the concept of the WTO multilateral trade system is to establish, promote and consolidate the hegemony of US corporate interests in global trade.

There is no doubt that GATT was a reasonably framed organisation for liberalisation of global trade, but unlike the WTO was flexible and recognised the differential status of developing countries to allow them use trade policy for development and industrialisation. Following the Uruguay Round these are reversed in order to meet the interest of United State of America. The then US agriculture Secretary John Block expressed this feeling at the start of the Uruguay Round negotiations in 1996 when he said that “The idea that developing countries should feed themselves is an anarchronism from a bygone era. They could better ensure their food security by relying on US agricultural products, which are available in most cases in much lower cost” (Walden B. 2001:36). The developing countries must rely on US agriculture. Other interests, particularly of services, medicine, information technology, and generally all investment groups are being imposed on developing countries.

The crucial question is that what is it that would be reformed to bring justice and fair play in an organisation which is founded in principles and processes to produce and reproduce injustice for poor countries? How can the WTO really be reformed to serve the interests of the developing world? Is it not only by world revolution? Are the WTO philosophy, principles, and structure necessary for global trade?

There is one issue which is important to recall in the development of multilateral trade relations. That is that the birth of ITO and subsequently the GATT is a result of disruption of global trade. But it was not global chaos that gave birth to the WTO in 1995. It is borne to reshape the global trading system to market rules of the current globaslisation which has favoured the interests of US big corporations.

In the context of these developments what reform will bring justice and fairness to developing countries? Is it not better to revert to the original GATT system, principles and approach to international trade? Indeed, the GATT system was not defective to any one except to increasing corporate interests of United State of America to dominate the world.

Even if those US corporations are hungry to dominate world trade the old GATT provided level play ground to achieve their goal. Because:
i) The GATT principles include trade policies for development and industrialisation of developing countries. Therefore, there would be no need for any controversial Doha Development Agenda now destabilising the global trade system.
ii) The GATT trade – regime has dispute settlement mechanism which treated all parties as equal.
iii) And that the world trade expanded 17-fold between 1948 and 1997, from $124 billion dollars to $10,770 billion, largely without WTO

The apparent dominance of neo-liberalism would make some people to believe that the Keynesian assumptions of GATT would no longer be relevant and that the global trade must go beyond it to bring political and economic as well as ideological conditions of neo-liberalism in order to promote global trade.

The neoliberal political and or economic discourse and policy has to a large extent without division believes that neo-liberal society is an open and democratic society which promotes pluralism in governance of human affairs. In accordance to this a WTO regime is to be built in and with multiplicity of other organisations, groups and states to provide check and balance on its immense power in global trade. Thus, what developing countries should aim at as part of the agenda of reform or restructuring the WTO is by a combination of passive and active measures to radically reduce its power and make it simply another international institution co-existing with and being check by other international organisations and regional groups (Ibid:46). Then simultaneously, a reform would came to reorganise policy making process, with another WTO court of justice to rule over conflict, and may be a WTO parliament directly elected by member state citizens to share power with WTO General council which would be a major policy making body also with executive power.

Conclusion
The WTO multilateral trading system is seriously ill. It is born with a disease which has become incurable and has now carried it down. It is still alive but majority members of the organisation are helpless on what to do with it. The rich country members need it but are searching and building alternatives to abandon and allow it to die.

The scenario is very difficult. To allow it to die? The alternatives may not be of benefits to poorer actors in global trading system. To reorganise it by means of some reforms of its trade processes? But as global power relationship remains the developed member countries will remain the major players, to render any reform meaningless.

The possibility of continuing in this way, the developing countries using their majority to engage the developed ones for institutional reforms in the WTO, while at the same time building an independent agriculture by the conventional method while simultaneously forming independent trade blocs, to begin to become economic powers.

In the context of the current global financial crisis, of course there are dangers which may lead to continues disadvantages for developing countries, but this could also be made to spur alternative economic strategy and multilateral trade relationships by poor countries. The financial meltdown is already reinforcing the WTO-Agriculture crisis as there is now fast rising food prices which the developing countries are most affected. Returning to conventional agriculture or “appropriate agriculture” as Rane and Nicholas called it may be risky but its success is possible depending upon the political framework within which it is established.


References
1. Anup, S. (2002) WTO Meeting in Doha Qatar, 2001. Global Issues: Online publication
2. Anup, S. (2006). WTO Doha “Development” Trade Round Collapses, 2006 Global Issues. Online Publication
3. Bergstein C.F. (1997) Global Trade and American Politics. Peterson Institute. Online Publication
4. EU (2007). The debate of Doha. The end of the Nultilateral Trading System. Online
5. Fareed Zakaria (2008). CNN GPS 28-12-2008
6. Kanaga, R. (2005). Developing Countries call for “Reclaiming development in the Doha Negotiations. TWN info services. Online
7. MAP (2006). The agricultural trade developments of major WTO players No. 01-06
8. Martin, K. (n.d.). The new threats to Developing Countries and sustainability. TWN Briefings for WSS D No.13. Online
9. Martin, K. (2001). On the multilateral Trading System. TWN info services. Online
10. Nick, B. (2000). Marxist Internationalism Vs the perspective of radical protest. WSWS. News and Analysis.
11. Rene, D. and Nicholas C. (1980). The Growth of Hunger: A New Politics of Agriculture London. Morion and Boyers
12. Rishard E. M. (2000). Africa in the Global Economy. Colorado. Lynne Rienner
13. Trade Observatory 12 2008. Online
14. UNDP (2003). Making Global Trade Work for People London. Earthscan Publication
15. Walden, B. (2001). The Future in the balance: Essays on globalisation and resistance. California. Food First Books
16. Walden, B. (2008) Destroying African Agriculture. Online.


Annex A
The Subject Matter of WTO Mock Summit 2009
The fifth WTO Mock Summit 2009 is planned to hold in a day during the Second Week of May. It is tagged Brazil 2009. The fourth Summit is conceived on the situation of the WTO regime after Hong Kong, whose subject matter was defined as WTO after Hong Kong: Death or Survival”.

The performance tried to capture the various issues of disagreement between the developing and developed country members of the organisation. It was concluded in favour of the majority who rejected decision making by consensus, but by majority votes. The final position on which the meeting become dispersed on is a stalemate by trade minister of Nigeria who said “The power structure of the WTO has failed to facilitate development of developing country members of this organisation. Therefore all the trade agreements are deliberately and consciously framed to favour the developing countries. In view of this I hereby move a motion that the whole structure and processes of the WTO regime be immediately reviewed. Otherwise, we, from the developing world would not continue to participate in the trade body under the same rules and processes”.

The disagreements in the mock summit as in the real WTO system, is dominated by the controversy on agricultural trade. Other issues like Non-Agricultural Market Access, intellectual property and public health services, etc had all featured in the mock summit, but Agreement on Agriculture became the most contested.
The importance of agriculture for human development needs not be stressed. Hundreds of years ago Francois Quesnay, leader of the French Physiocrat School of economists noted that “commerce, like industry, is merely a branch of agriculture. It is agriculture which furnishes the material of industry and commerce and which pays both. A nation which has little trade in raw produce, and which is reduced to trade in industrial goods in order to subsist, is in a precarious and uncertain position…. Moreover, such a nation is always subject to and dependent upon those which sell it primary necessities (Caldwell, M. 1982:7)

It is clear that the physiciocrats must now be held vindicated by the struggle both between rich nations on the one hand and between rich and poor nations on the other hand to have control in global trade in agriculture. The WTO Agreement on Agriculture illustrates how the rivalry among the rich countries drives to more subordination of the developing to the developed countries.

Prior to the Uruguay Round, because of the United States threat in the 1950s to withdraw from GATT if it was not allowed to maintain protective mechanisms for milk and other agricultural products, the GATT gave that waiver to and at the same time led to agricultural trades exemption from GATT for fear of being accused of having double standards. This is the only waiver given but the US and the other rich countries also ignored the ban on subsidies by the GATT system.

The effect of these was a fast transformation of agriculture in these countries. For example, EU moved from being a net food importer into a net food exporter. The US too although had more relatively advance agriculture, became more sophisticated and modern.

The EU’s Economic Agricultural Policy, with a combination of price and sales guarantees, subsidies and other support measures that protected farmer’s incomes from market forces, European farmers expanded production. The mounting surpluses could only find markets through exports, and this create competition with the previously dominant subsidised US farmers for Third World Markets.

Competition for developing country markets become vicious. Each was trying to out compete the other. By the late 1980s, for instance, close to 80 percent of the EUs budget was going to support agricultural programmes. While the US came up with a program called Export Enhancement Program, to reconquer markets, such as the North African wheat Market from the EU.

While it was the threat of US that led to exemption of agricultural trade from GATT rules, it was US pressure that brought agriculture into the WTO system in 1995. The intention was to go back to free trade in agriculture in order to regulate a condition of monopolistic competition between the two superpowers. In reality, the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture was between US and EU, called the Blair House Accord 1992 and 1993, sold to other GATT-WTO members by the two superpowers in 1994 in what Walden Bello called on a “take-it-or-leave-it” basis. Indeed, all the other members from the South and not from the North ratified it by a coerced-consent.

The main key provisions/issues on the Agreement on Agriculture are:
1. Market Access issues. It was agreed to convert all non-tariff agricultural barriers to ordinary tarrifs in respect of all agricultural tariffs and to subject them to reductions.
2. Domestic support: All member countries are to reduce support on domestic agricultural policies which would deem to have the largest effect on production and market distortion
3. Export subsidy: It was agreed to reduce the volume and value of subsidized exports over a six year period by 21 and 36 percent respectively, and not expand subsidies beyond the level reached at the end of the six-year period.
4. The implementation of the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytasanitary measures directly affects agriculture. The SPS imposed guidelines on the use of measures to protect human, animal and plant life and health from foreign pests, diseases and contaminants. These SPS rules are arbitrarily used as protective measures to deny agricultural exports from developing to developed countries.
5. Introduction of biotechnolology in agricultural production has given rise to new issues and disputes both between developed countries and as well as between the developed and developing countries.
6. Although only a few state trading enterprises could affect world trade, especially with accession of China the STE remains a controversial issue on the WTO agenda.
7. The TRIPS Agreement has become a threat to Third World agrarian communities because their traditional knowledge are being stolen by big corporations, patented and denied them to use it for their own development
8. Subsequently, such issues which could be challenged in WTO dispute settlement, the court procedure has been changed from the GATT and made practically impossible for developing countries to get justice.

The AOA is entirely a plot to undermine agricultural development of Third World countries. Of course, it does offer some concessions to the developing countries in the form of the lifting of quotas and some reduction in tariffs on developing country exports of commercial crops like palm oil and coconut oil. But these benefit few lobby groups such as Malaysian palm oil plantations, big cocoa and coffee export companies in Africa and Asia, as well as big sugar interests in the Caribbean. Nevertheless, the vast majority of unorganised small farmers producing rice, corn, and other food crops, not only are not favoured by this concession but are hurt. Liberalisation of agricultural trade has made them to lose their incomes, farms and even health. They are abandoned to die because of free trade.


Less than five years after the URAA, the developing countries poured out their anger that they cannot go with AOA. While both EU and US are opposed to changes. The collapse of the agricultural negotiations in seattle in 1999, Walden Bello observed is the best example of how the stalemate on AOA has started. (Ibid 2001:43). Conjoining with other issues to cause the collapse of the second ministerial summit of the WTO.

Based on the above, it is important to stress that the failure of many negotiations and consultative meetings on Doha Development Round has been, especially because of AOA.

Reform of the WTO multilateral trade regime is very difficult. In the present complex relations of interests and domination, an alternative multilateral system may not be at advantage of the developing countries. To allow it die? Whatever would come out may be preceded by global chaos, conflicts and disorder. Therefore, in the fifth WTO mock summit – dubbed Brazil 2009 – we have to be extraordinarily more creative to swim through these various paradigms to defend the interests of the developing countries, while at the same time the WTO-regime continues.


Annex B
Major players/Actors in Negotiations on AOA
Major Traders Major Exporters
1. EU 1. Brazil
2. US 2. Australia
3. Canada 3. Argentina
4. China 4. New Zealand
5. India 5. Costa Rica

Major Importers Others
1. Japan 1. Mexico
2. Korea 2. Indonesia
3. Russia 3. Malaysia
4. Hong Kong 4. South Africa

Others with important impact to note
1. Philippine 9. Venezuela
2. Cuba 10. Pakistan
3. Turkey 11. Bolivia
4. Nigeria 12. Chile
5. Kenya 13. Columbia
6. Zimbabwe 14. Guatemala
7. Paraguay 15. Uruguay

The above are major WTO players in agricultural trade issues. We will select about 20 including the majors of the majors i.e. EU; US; India; China; Brazil; South Africa; Canada; Argentina and Malaysia to get ministerial representation in the mock summit. The specific and official position of each would be investigated for presentation in the summit.
Annex C
Preparation for the Mock Summit
 Roles would be assigned within the first five weeks of the New Academic Session i.e. 2008/2009
 Immediately the participants would be advised to start an independent research on the position of the country to represent.
 Five weeks to the performance training will kick-off by the Director delivering a lecture on the issues on Agricultural Trade confronting the WTO
 All the participants are expected to attend. Those who do not would be droped there.
 After the lecture all the participants will be divided into working groups each to be headed by one of them.
 The topics of the working groups would be: History of GATT-WTO; Agreement on Agriculture; market access; domestic support; export subsidy; SPS issues affecting agriculture; biotechnology on agricultural trade issue; TRIPS and agriculture; STE as an issue; agricultural issues in DSP; EU and US;
 The resource persons as chairmen of the working groups are: Abdullahi Muawiyah; Riyauddeen Zubairu; Sani Sabiu; Yusif Koroka; Lawi Isa Abdullahi; Musa Yahaya Yusif; Sani Garba Wakili; Abdullahi Shehu Yusif; Faiza Tukur Pate; Abba A. Talba; Mustapha Mukhtar; Babangida Salihu;
 Each working group will present the issues in the larger house for discussion.
 Following the working group discussions the actors will be given one week to do further research and submit a short report on the issues to be presented during the summit
 Finally, there will be a rehearsal of two weeks. Then the mock summit will be staged.



Annex D
The Working Groups
1. The history of GATT-WTO
Chairman: Lawi Isa Abduallhi
2. Agreement on Agriculture
Chairman: Babangida Salihu
3. Market Access Issues
Chairman: Abba A. Talba
4. Domestic Support Issues
Chairman: Sani Garba Wakili
5. Export Subsidy
Chairman: Faiza Tukur Pate
6. SPS Issues Affecting Agriculture
Chairman: Abdullahi Muawuyah
7. Biotechnologyu as Agricultural Trade Issue
Charman: Mustapha Mukhtar
8. TRIPS and Agriculture
Chairman: Musa Yahaya Yusif
9. EU-WTO Agricultural Trade
Chairman: Riyyauddeen Zubairu Maitama
10. US-WTO Agricultural Trade
Chairman: Abdullahi Shehu Yusuf
11. State Trading Enterprises as an issue
Chariman: Sani Sabiu
12. Agricultural Issues in DSP
Chairman: Yusuf Koroka

Annex E
Media roles and Coverage
Every WTO summit performance has got a message to send towards understanding global economic and political as well as social relation. The first was to defect militarization of global trade in the current era of globalisation. The second and the third in 2005/2006 and 2006/2007 Academic sessions respectively tried to show the dominance and undemocratic management of the WTO system, especially by USA. The fourth performance, in 2007/2008 Academic year challenged the institution of WTO for being unfair and unjust to developing country members of the powerful body. The mock exercise reversed the “consensus” style in taking decision. And concluded that the WTO processes are put to favour the rich country members. The fifth summit is intended to review these processes and to repositioned the global trade body.

In order to understand the message of the performance it has to be communicated skillfully. I had once told my boys that the beauty, excitement and ability to carry the audience depend on what the media actors have creatively done to project the performance.

In the division of roles we have media men who reports the performance alive. We have accumulated experience on this. When we started we composed briefs on the main scenes from beginning to the end. We got an effective communicator, then a level II student, whom with a little training did it very well. The way it was reported alive to the audience made it the talk of Bayero University Campus. The following year, both the acts and the reporting was very fantastic such that the message spread outside University Campus to the city of Kano. Any group of educated people you see were talking about it. In 2006/2007, a little set back, but another one of us, also then a level II student picked the media role and equally did it very well. In the fourth mock summit we got three professional communicators from Departments of English and Mass Communication. They, with their professional values and training added many colours in the reporting which contributed to this one being of International Standard. In the fifth round in 2008/2009, we have to get similar participants from the same Departments.

This may avail us with possibilities for more innovations and improvement on the reporting. The most important things for media roles are:
1. To read all the necessary papers prepared for the performance
2. To understand the issues, subject-matter and the message intended to be put across
3. To know the names and other actors’ identities for the purpose of accurate reporting
4. To be able to add “media jokes” to the performance to be impressed by any one who sees it.
5. To introduce modern information technology facilities and if possible to televise it alive to be monitored outside the campus
6. To organise media chats with participants either before the mock summit commences or after or both
7. To encourage various student associations to cover the occasion and report in their newsletters and magazines
8. Finally to invite national media houses to cover the occasion.


Annex F
 By 9:00am the venue will be set
 Then the audience and invited guests will be coming and got seated
 While that is going on the delegates/participants too are coming around in their full regalia (hanging outside the venue)
 Meanwhile the media men are getting set with their instruments
 At appropriate time the BBC will start broadcasting news capturing that the WTO summit is now holding in Brazil.
 Then the media would be showing, see the Director General arriving with his crew etc
 These would be followed by delegates
 Then on the conference hall the Director General would be seen talking and making consultation, then he would announce that the minister of trade of Brazil will now take his seat as the chairman of the summit.
 By this time the agenda and some papers will be placed before the chairman
 The head of state of Brazil is arriving
 The Director General would now welcome the Head of State of Brazil and invite him to declare the conference open
 This is by making a speech.
 As soon as he finished and left with his entourage the chairman will start the agenda by calling the Director General to give opening remarks
 Then to be followed by speech of the chairman
 After the speech, the chairman would refer to the DG for report of committees. Then the reports would come one by one.
 After the reports the chairman will open the floor for comments by delegates-this would come by raising of hands and by the chairman recognizing one at a point.
 During the US trade representative speech, the demonstrators will come in and disrupt the summit, chanting slogan against WTO. However, the demonstrators will be blocked by having security men dispatched. The US trade representative will then continue
 It is always better that there are disagreements. So that by the time each has spoken, the situation becomes very tense
 Then the floor would be open again for some countries to make assertions which would still appear more controversial.
 Then going to the green room would be announced by the Chairman and who would go there with USA, EU, Canada; Japan and Director General to decide on the issue finally.
 Going to the green room would be vehemently opposed as undemocratic by delegates from developing countries
 The final declaration will be read
 Then the summit closes.


Annex G
Members of the Organising Committee
1. Sani Sabiu
2. Lawi Isa Abdullahi
3. Mustapha Mukhtar
4. Abdullahi Muawiyah
5. Sani Muhammad Kawuwa
6. Riyauddeen Zubairu Maitama
7. Yusuf Musa Yahaya
8. Abduallhi Shehu Yusif
9. Yusuf G. Koroka
10. Faiza Tukur Pate
11. Richard T.
12. Basiru Musa
13. Abdullahi Yusif
14. Auwalu Andulkadir Ja’en
15. Maryam Suleiman Yakub
16. Isa Mohammed

Terms of Reference
1. To take care of logistics towards staging a successful MOCK SUMMIT 2008/09
2. To facilitate distribution of all necessary materials about the summit
3. To disseminate the mission of the summit in and out of Bayero University Campus
4. To source funding for successful summit and other intended programmes
5. Any other assignment that may arise



Annex H
Members of the Secretariat of the Mock Summit
1. Sani Sabiu Chairman
2. Lawi Isa Abdullahi Director-General
3. Abdullahi Muawiyah Chairman, Commission on Implementation of SPS aspects affecting agriculture
4. Sani Grba Wakili Chairman on Domestic Support Issues
5. Faiza Tukur Pate Chairperson on Export Subsidy
6. Abba A. Talba Chairman on Market Access Issues
7. Musa Yahaya Yusif Chairman TRIPS and Agriculture Issues
8. Mustapha Mukhtar Chairman, Commission on Biotechnology as agricultural trade issue
9. Yusuf Koroka Chairman on Trade Dispute issues

INTERNET HOUSE 2007/2008

2007/08
Session
INTERNET HOUSE
[REPORT OF ACTIVITIES]
2007/2008 session
Internet House (IH)

DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
FACULTY OF SOCIAL AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO





INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
FOR LEARNING IN M. M. YUSUF CLASSES

REPORT OF ACTIVITIES



BY


INTERNET HOUSE 2007/2008

HAMZA MARAFA
UMAR DANJUMA
ADAMU ISMA’IL
ZAINUL ABIDEEN JIBRIL
HABIB SANI
DAIFURU KABIR








OCTOBER, 2008



FOREWORD

During the last five years, without any official support and recognition I have single-handedly introduced ICT in all my classes, for teaching, learning and research. When I started it is only devotion and love of silent revolution I’m making which encouraged me to continue as there were no official facilities available. Only private business cafes on the university campus and outside.

My interest in this grew as I have seen the collapse of university education and participated in many organisations including the Academic Staffs Unions of Universities to revitalize it and realized that an individual could make his own contribution.

When we started I have done many pulling together-writing instructional papers on how to use internet, E-mail, and E-journal library for teaching learning and research. Giving similar instructions in classroom lectures and making it compulsory that each student must in each week use the ICT system and report. When official facilities become available at the beginning of each session I organised brief orientation for my student in ICT section of the main library.

It does not stop there. In order to make the students take it serious, in the first two years of introducing this package for learning, in every examination I set whether of political economy or of politics of development and underdevelopment, there is a compulsory section on issues of the ICT.

Perhaps, the most exciting is that, each academic session I select students who formed a classroom association which we variously called Cyber Club or Internet Partnership Association. In 2007/2008 it is called Internet House.

This report grew out of the activities of Internet House 2007/2008 academic session. Similar reports of Internet Partnership Association 2005/2006 and Cyber Club still 2005/2006 are also available.


M. M. Yusuf
November, 2008



2007/2008 INTERNET HOUSE REPORT: ACTIVITIES, STRATEGIES AND SUCCESS


Today, it has become a reality that internet has changed everything in teaching, learning and research, and so the House was established by its instructor Mallam M. M. Yusuf to keep in pace with those changes. In particular it was clearly stated that the House’s primary assignment is enhancing the internet potentiality of the class.

It is in recognition of this, that the House meets every Thursday at 10:00 am in Rabi’u Kwankwaso common room to carryout the above mentioned task. And since the inauguration of the House, the members become available for 24 hours service-ready and technically equipped to help our colleagues tackle problems that may arise when using internet in learning and research. The names, phones numbers and E-mail address of each member of the House were circulated to make contacts easier.

The House realized that one essential element in carrying out the task and achieve the goal effectively lies in the understanding of how some students acquires and use their knowledge in learning and research, and why others fail. Based on this, and considering the performance of the House and the target audience, the house felt the need to map out a strategy towards heightening the capability of executing and accomplishing the primary assignment of the house. Thus a success route toward this was devised and laid out in this way:
· Surveying the target audience
· Taking a sample population
· Sourcing information from the sample population (mainly through interview)
· Processing the information
· Planning and implementation

Using the above route, three seminars were selected for preliminary exercise. The learning and research method of those seminars were identified, areas and issues handicapping them were fished out, and remedial measures were devised and prescribed. Some of the problems identified include:
o Improper arrangement in the course of learning and research
o Most students pays people or staffs in charge of internet cafes to source them material from the internet
o In cases where the material are source by students, some of the sources are not scholarly e.g. wikepedia
o Some students download online materials without the name of the author or copyright
o Improper citation of the online materials

Therefore the House through teamwork embarked on teamwork culture training as well as technical or practical training in order to address the problems identified above. Indeed an orientation was given to the three selected seminars covering the following areas:
o Time management and success skills in learning and research
o Techniques of writing successful research essays including small research project
o Techniques of sourcing scholarly internet materials
o Ethics of sourcing the materials as well as the way of referencing the online materials (attached to this reports is a paper prepared on this and third item).

Two weeks later the impacts of these become obvious as the exercise soon covered more seminars. And for simplicity, the subsequent exercise were conducted inform of phases. These include:

Phase I
1. seminar of Hamza Marafa
2. seminar of Umar Danjuma
3. seminar of Adamu Isma’il
4. seminar of Zainul Abideen

Phase II
1. seminar of Isma’il Galadima
2. seminar of Auwal Abubakar
3. seminar of Tijjani Isma’il
4. seminar of Sani Isma’il

Phase III
1. seminar of Tasi’u Magaji
2. seminar of Umar Kabir
3. seminar of Aminu Saleh

However the House felt the need to focus solely on new generation seminars, as the previous exercise only covered seminars that were in existence since level two or three. This is to help them catch up the potentiality of the first and second generation seminars. These seminars include:

1. seminar of Aliyu Zubairu
2. seminar of Muhammad Gambo Saleh
3. seminar of Kashim Jere
4. seminar of Jamilu Sabo
5. seminar of Ramato Momoh

Moreover the House is working to liaise with British Council, Kano Center to receive a broad training on internet learning and research for all the seminars. This will also give the Internet House Members an avenue to partake in British Council membership registration so as to have access to the council’s internet and library resources, symposiums as well as other educated programmes and materials.

Thus, the House succeeded in keeping in touch with sixteen out of twenty two seminars. Hence the House succeeded in imparting and sustaining knowledge and skills needed for learning and research.

It is in the light of this experience that the House offered the following recommendations:

o In next pol4301 class, the criteria for selecting new seminar members should included internet fluency.
o It should be mandatory for all seminar leaders to be active partners or members of the House. Hence they should serve as intermediary between the House and their seminars.
o They should also ensure the circulation of new ideas, skills for internet-based learning and research.
o It should be mandatory for all students to source at least one internet material for every topic of Pol4301, so as to further sustain and or improve internet research culture.

Finally, with these, will come more internet competent students, and would emerge a force rebuilding as well as re-strengthening teamwork structure and spirit. Indeed, would come team of seminars learning together, researching together and succeeding together in pursuit of common goal.



THE HOUSE MEMBERS

Hamza Marafa Chairman
Daifuru Kabir Secretary
Umar Danjuma Coordinator
Zainul Abideen Jibril technical Assistant I
Habib Sani Technical Assistant II
Adamu Isma’il member
Isma’il Galadima member
Auwal Abubakar member
Sani Isma’il member
Umar Kabir member
Tijjani Isma’il member
Aliyu Zubairu member
Riya’udeen Z. maitama member
Farouk Ibrahim member


























SOURCING SCHOLARLY INTERNET MATERIALS

Internet is valuable research tool because it provides access to information in the computers of educational institutions, business, government bureau, and non profit organisations all over the world.

Information and communication technology (ICT) make this possible, quickly and cheaply. And thus, ICT refers to the digitization of data as well as integration of computers with the method of collecting, analyzing, sharing and dissemination of information. It makes information driven, on which knowledge flows constantly, back, forth, across an ever changing web. Indeed every second, massive volume of information is routed through it.

To find scholarly information we have to make use of global search engines. Search engines are a website or computer program that provides quick access to information on the internet. It provide a text box into which you type keywords associated with the information you want, it then respond to your query by displaying a list of documents that match your request. One of the best online sources for help with internet is the library of congress resource page, at . Once you connected, you can link to any number of the following resources:

1. WWW search engine Under this category, you can search the web with engines such as Yahoo!, Alta Vista or Goggle Etc. Yahoo! Is a searchable, browsable directory: Alta vista is a powerful search engine, while Google is the most comprehensive search engines.
o Yahoo! () it is both a search engines and a directory, made of subject tree. A subject tree is a hierarchical index system of finding tress’s branches to specific documents.

o Alta vista and Google does a through full-text search of documents for key words. If you put a fairly general key word into Alta vista or Google you will most likely to receive hundreds or thousands links of pages, form which you can select the specific ones.

Others engines in this category includes, excite engines at , infoseek at , Lycos at , etc.

2. Meta Search Engines: This is search engines that search a number of other search engines at one time. For example on Dogfile (), instead of getting result such as “30 hits found” you may read “10 hits on Altavista, 5 hits on Googgle, 20 hits on info seek” etc then you choose which result you may want to look at. You can look at <http://metasearch.com>, metacrawler at , etc.

Ethics Of Sourcing Online Materials
When doing your research on the internet, the information is expected to be reliable. To ensure this, Hodges, Keolla, and Keen (2001) suggest that the following questions should be at the mind of researchers while surfing the internet.

o Who is the author or sponsor of the page? In a situation where a page is created by a person or organisation that doest provide this information, such information is not a good source to cite. In such cases, delete the last section of the URLs and reload the browser again.
o Are there observed reason for bias?
o Is content information provided?
o Is there a copyright symbol on the page? If so who hold the copyright?
o What is the purpose of the page?
o How well organise is the page?
o Is the information on the page primary or secondary?
o Can you verify the information?

Documenting Online Info
Different discipline has specific formal convention for documenting sources in scholarly writing. In humanities the most common style is that of Modern Language Association (MLA), whereas in physical, natural and social sciences the American Psychological Association is often used.

To document changeable online sources the APA style is recommended. And it consists of author’s name, date of most recent revision, title of the source, date of access, and identification of the type other document. In place of publisher is the complete URL. Suppose you access this paper online, the reference will be in this format:

Marafa H. (2008 April 9), Sourcing scholarly internet materials,[online] (second editon URL retrieved May 27th, 2007 from world wide web: http://www.internethouse2008blogspot.com/essays/html



References:
Hodges J., Koella J. C., Keen M. (2001), guides to internet for student of humanities, version 2.0, Mayfield publishing company, mountain view, California.

Internet explorer (2004), the professor teaches internet explorer 5, [CD] individual software.

Internet House
2008






























A REPORT OF INTERNET HOUSE EXERCISE TO LEVEL TWO STUDENTS

As one of the House’s primary task, the internet House extends its programs to level two students of Pol2204. The exercise was conducted on the 23rd September, 2008, in M-block old site. The class chosen and recommended by the House’s director Mallam M. M. Yusuf was the foundation of the political economy class.

The exercise was titled “guide to internet for students of pol2204”. It attempts to aid the flow skills on internet-based learning and research. The introductory aspect of the exercise focused on three fundamental questions of the House: Who we are, what we do and how we do it.

Who we are: we are the internet house. It is the learner’s house of learning working together as a team to become independent learners.

What we do: our task is enhancing the internet potentials of the target audience by charting and directing the flow of new ideas, new skills and new strategies on internet-based learning and research

How we do it: this is simple, we sit down, list what we know and what we don’t know concerning internet-based learning and research. Then we set out to search for relevant information. Once we found what we want, we analyse and discuss it, and make sure we have understood and master it. Finally the House shares the new ideas and skills acquired which gives us the platform for giving out training, technical assistance and advice to the target audience.


However the main body of the lecture comprised or covers the following areas:
1. The computer system and the internet, presented by Hamza Marafa
2. Accessing and sourcing materials on the internet by Umar Danjuma
3. E-mail for learning and research by Adamu Isma’il
4. E-journals for learning and research by Habib Sani
5. Techniques of browsing: common problems and solutions by Zainul Abideen Jibrin
(Full text of these is attached to this report)

However, an ‘interactive session” was held on comments, suggestions and questions.

Finally, the exercise has become an ongoing process, many students of the class are daily contacting the House for advice and technical assistance on internet-based learning and research particularly with regard to their small research projects. The House appreciated the cooperation of the class during the exercise. In the light of this, we recommend the following students of the class to be part of the internet House:

o Basiru Musa
o Aminu Salisu
o Surajo Yahaya Muhammad
o Hamisu Idris
o Binta Muhammad Kurmawa
o Maryam Suleiman



























GUIDES TO INTERNET FOR STUDENTS OF POL.2204

Introduction

Today, educational policy makers, teachers, researchers and students are preoccupied with the task of transforming teaching, learning and research into internet-centered, internet-based and internet-oriented, as precondition by this era of knowledge and information technology. And as the product of such giant stride, the Internet House attempts to aid the flow of new ideas, new skills and new strategies for learning and research on the internet to the students of Pol.2204 so as to improve their competence in facing the dynamic nature of modern knowledge and learning.

COMPUTER SYSTEM AND THE INTERNET

by
Hamza Marafa

The computer system and the internet have become the necessary ingredients of learning and research in this era of knowledge and information technology. And today a common mistake among students is referring computer system as an internet, which is quite mistaken idea, because the terms are only complimentary to each other.

Computer is an electro-mechanic device that accepts, process, store, and output data at high speed, and according to the information given to it. Computer system comprised of hardwire and the software. The physical computer and its components are known as hardware. They are those devices that can be seen, touched and used by the operator, like CD-ROM, disk, diskette, floppy disk, flash disk, key board, and the space bar. others includes the memory that stores data and program instructions; the central processing unit (CPU) that carries out program instructions; the input devices, such as a keyboard or mouse, that allow the user to communicate with the computer; the output devices, such as printers and video display monitors, that enable the computer to present information to the user; and buses (hardware lines or wires) that connect these and other computer components.

On the other hand, the programs that run the computer are called software which is designed to perform a particular type of task like writing a letter, or to display and modify a photograph, or to direct the general operation of the computer (Snyder, 2007). Hence they can only be used by the operator, unlike hardwire they might not be touched, and they include browser, buffer, cursor, database, directory etc. Therefore, the computer system is made up of input, output and storage apparatus.



The computer apparatus

However, the integration of this computer system with the method of collecting, analyzing, sharing, and dissemination of information brought what has been termed information and communication technology (ICT). Internet has been the chief contemporary examples of ICT.

The Internet is a global network of computers, their interconnection, and information that travels between them. It is global web of computer networks, and that is why in the early stages of its development it was described as ‘the internetworking of networks’, internet for short. It was created in 1969 as ARPANET by the US department of defense, as a means of communication in the event of a nuclear attack. This was because it had no single central location that could be destroyed by a single nuclear blast. In the 1970s the basic internet infrastructure was established, and conveniences such as e-mail were developed to broaden its appeal in 1972. It was the invention of WWW by British physicist and computer scientist Timothy Berners-Lee in 1989 that brought the benefits of internet into a mass audience (Price, 2001).

However, each of internet networks may link tens, hundreds, or even thousands of computers, enabling them to share information and processing power. The Internet has made it possible for people all over the world to communicate with one another effectively and inexpensively. Indeed, an individual who has Internet access can communicate directly with anyone else on the Internet, post information for general consumption, retrieve information, use distant applications and services, or buy and sell products (Comer, 2007). Internet stores information in different format, the most popular is the web page. A web page consists of variety of elements such as texts, pictures, animation and hyperlink. A group of related web page is called web site, while collection of all web site is called the World Wide Web.

There are network apparatus used in linking computers to internet, these are:

o Two or more computers
o Network card
o Modem
o Internet service provider, and
o Network media

Once you connect to internet, you would probably come across terms that are specific to the discipline. Now let look at the meaning of such terms:

Online: this is when a computer is connected to the internet
Offline: this is when a computer is not connected to the internet

Browser: this is computer program that enables a computer to locate, download, and display documents containing text, sound, video, graphics, animation, and photographs located on computer networks.
Browsing: this is act of searching information on the internet by frequently changing the sites. In other word, it is the act of viewing and moving about between documents on computer networks.
Search engines: These are web sites that provide quick access to the information on the internet.
Home page: this is referred to the web page that your browser is set to load each time it start up.
Web page: this is the information that is displayed on the screen by loading a single HTML file.
Hyper Text Mark up Language (HTML): this is mark up language used for creating a document on the WWW
Hypertext: is a topic that links information on the internet
World Wide Web (WWW): this is known as ‘W3’ or ‘the web’, it is collection of all HTML document stored on public servers on the internet
Universal Resource Locators (URLs): this is universal resource locators of web pages. It is string of characters that identifies the type of a document, the computer the document is on, and the name of the document, e.g. http://www.mmyusif.blogspot.com the http means that the document is on the WWW, mmyusif is the information, blogspot is the database or the name of the organization that manage the database, .com is the domain name.
Domain names: These are names for specific sub networks and organisations that are parts of the internet. It generally consists of two parts separated by a period. For example att.com, the left part of the period is usually the name of the organisation itself, the part to the right of the period is the general description of what king of organisation the domain refers to. There are currently five of such extensions:
o .net part of community that design and governs internet
o .gov government institution
o .org a non profit organisation
o .com a commercial profit making organisation
o .edu an educational institution
Download: this is act of taking a file off a remote computer and bringing it down to your personal computer, where you can view, save, or print.
Upload: this means sending information from your personal computer to the internet.

These and other internet features helps in dissemination and or sharing up-to-date information, with exhaustive materials on arts, science, as well as research materials for students, and coverage for recreational entertainment, sports, shopping. It also provides access to almanacs, dictionaries, as well as encyclopedia, public and college libraries, to mention but a few.

References
Microsoft (2004), The professor Teachers Internet Explorer, [DVD] individual software, Microsoft Corporation.
Internet House, (2008a), Sourcing Scholarly Internet Materials, internet House 2007/2008
Price W. (2001), Internet and Business, McGraw Hill/Dushkin, first edition, USA
Comer, D.E., (2007), Internet, [DVD], Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation
Snyder T. L., (2007), computer, [DVD], Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation





























ACCESSING AND SOURCING MATERIALS ON THE INTERNET

By
Umar Danjuma

Internet is computer-based global information system which composed of many interconnected computer networks that allows massive volume of information to travel between it constantly. This makes the internet a large repository of information. And today the amount of information on the Web continues to grow rapidly, as does the number of users around the world. This is why many students are puzzled with ‘how do I access the internet?’ and or ‘how do I source information on the internet’

How Do I Access Internet?
§ Click on start button
§ Point to programs
§ Click on internet explorer
§ A home page will automatically be launched
Or
§ Double click the icon labeled internet explorer from the desktop environment, and the home page will automatically be launched.
Alternatively, from the desktop environment
§ Right click on the icon labeled internet explorer
§ A drop down list will appear
§ From the list select open home page and it will be launched.


How Do I Source Material From The Internet?

Once the home page is launched, you may observe that it contain many bars: the standard bar, formatting bar, tool bar, address bar etc. So focus on the address with the search engine you want search with like the Google, yahoo! MSN Search, Alta Vista, Lycos, Hot Bot, info seek etc. Thus you can follow the following steps:

§ Click on the address bar
§ On the address bar, write WWW.Google.com
§ A Google website will appear
§ On the Google string, write either the title of the material, the name of author, or the subject matter you are looking for.
§ The Google will respond to your request by displaying a list of documents that match your search query.

This is a simple way to search materials on the net using the World Wide Web search engines. Finally once you find a relevant material, the information is expected to be reliable (see Internet House {a} 2008).



References
Microsoft (2004), The professor Teachers Internet Explorer, [DVD] individual software, Microsoft Corporation.

Comer, D.E., (2007), Internet, [DVD], Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation

E-MAIL FOR TEACHING LEARNING AND RESEARCH

By
Adamu Isma’il

Historical Background
E-mail predates the inception of the internet and was in fact a crucial tool in creating the internet. E-mail started in 1965 as way for multiple users of a time-sharing mainframe computer to communicate. It was quickly extended to become network e-mail, allowing users to pass messages between different computers by at least 1966. But it was fully developed in 1972 as a resource to broaden super light way.

What Is E-Mail?
Electornic Mail is often abbreviate to e-mail. it is a store and forward method of writing, sending, receiving and saving messages over electronic communication system. E-mail can also be sent automatically to a large number of addresses in what is referred to as mailing list. It also allows for the sharing of information form one computer system to another system.

What Do I Need To Send And Receive E-Mail?
Basically you need three (3) things to and received e-mail.
1. Internet connection
2. E-mail account
3. E-mail software package
E-Mail Account
To sent and received messages, you must have an e-mail account or e-mail address. An electronic mail address is an allocation space on the internet, it is personalized for one’s use and enables one to receive and send mails to other locations on the internet. You can open a free e-mail address in the following websites: www.yahoo.com, www.hotmail.com, www.hi5.com etc.

Signing Up An E-Mail Address In Yahoo
Before you sign with yahoo, make sure you write down your ID, that is the e-mail address you wish to use, e.g. al-amin@yahoo.com;
Al-amin is the user name and yahoo.com is the server name. Then your password which you will use to open your e-mail box, the password should be personal to you alone.

Step To Follow When Signing-Up An E-Mail
i. Go to yahoo default home page\
ii. Click on e-mail button
iii. Click on sign-up
iv. Type in the required information
v. Type the word displayed in the given space
vi. Click on submit
vii. A congratulation message will be displayed as this (volume to yahoo e-mail, with ID telling you that you have successfully signed up e-mail account with yahoo).

Important Of E-Mail To Learning And Research
1. E-mail helps in sharing and exchanging of ideas among colleagues or student.
2. E-mail allows us to know about the publication of new information by registering to some relevant organization e.g. World Socialist Website (WSWS) and third world travelers.
3. E-mail helps in storage of books, journals and article that are been source from the internet.
4. Lastly, it allow for the sharing of materials within the group of student e.g. like within our friends we used to share relevant materials sourced from the internet.
Disadvantages Of E-Mail
1. Spread of technological terrorism i.e. virus and e-mail scam
2. Issue of privacy, before message reach its destination, the message must reach to the internet service provider.
3. Fraudsters used e-mail for internet fraud.

References
Alverno (2003) e-mail an Overview
http://depts.alverno.edu/eil/mod2/emailwork.html

Wikipedia.(2008) e-mail
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/e-mail.

Yusuf M.M (2006) A lectures not on e-mail week for teaching learning and research

Untitled material (ND) e-mail as one of the research of the internet.























E-JOURNALS FOR LEARNING AND RESEARCH

By
Habib Sani
Introduction
E-journals technically mean electronic journals. It is an electronic versions of Academic journals. In fact it is an alternative and parallel method for the delivery of paper journals in the sense that it is published and access on line.

E-journal is an electronic archive, as a digital repository, it provides for long term preservation and access to leading academic journals and scholarly literature from around the world.

A full text journal articles are available via a flat form that provide both browsing and searching and also library users can access e-journals on library website within the campus networks or via remote networks.

Over the last decades, e-journals have become increasingly popular and have begun to oust paper journals as the normal mechanism for delivering papers on academic research to the community. This was as a result of rapid growth and development in computer electronics as well as information technology which accompanied 21st century.

E-journals are supported by libraries, scholarly societies, publishers and foundations. Its collections have an enormous scope, consisting of research materials on must subject and it has always contained a variety of materials. they are distributed and access via the internet usually to those individuals or organization that voluntarily registered to received them. Example of e-journals are Ebsco-host, Hinari, Jstor e.t.c

Accessing E-journals
In order to have access to e-journals, 3 basic requirements are needed
ü Computer
ü Access to internet
ü An account with e-journals organization or site.
This may be accomplished by
ü Entering an internet address and retrieving a page directly.
ü Browsing through pages and selecting links to move from one page to another
ü Searching through subjecting directories linked to organized collection of web pages
ü Entering a search statement at a search engine to retrieve pages on topic of your choice
Searching E-journal
There are three modes of searching for an e-journal:
1. Search by Title: you may select from the A-Z list to retrieve journal by title; or input journal title or part of the title to the search box and click “Go”. You may check the radio buttom to set
2. Search by Subject: choose subject e.g. “African studies”, then select again in the sub-category such as “Colonialism in Nigeria” and press “Go” then a whole list of e-journals under this subject sub-category will be retrieved. You can then click the Link to view your selected e-journal online.
3. Advanced search: from the advanced search mode, you can search e-journal titles by criteria (contain words / begins with/ exact match), by collection and by subject.
Importance of E-journals for learning and Research
1. E- journals provides people with access to the information they need for learning and research.
2. It helps student to supplement and enhance their classroom experiences to learn skills in locating sources of information and to develop good reading and study habit.
3. It provides student with the ability to access vast new sources of information via the internet.
Tips on How to Access Jstor E-journal
ü Turn on your system
ü Open your default browser, on the Address Bar, type the J-stor website address (i.e www.jstor.org),and wait for seconds for webpage to display.
ü On the Jstor webpage, click the link “Log In” which is at the top-right corner of the page, this will automatically display login option.
ü From the Login options look for “Accessing jstor using Username and Password” and click enter.
ü Fill the two boxes by typing your Username (Bayero) password (nepomovo) and click login below or press Enter button on key board. This will lead you to “Basic Search Box”
ü In the Search Box or Search Bar type your searching words or concept and click “search” or Press Enter button.
ü If the Search Results displays, Scroll and read in order choose or pick the best articles that best suits your search. You need to exercise patient and care in picking search terms.
ü Click on the article that go well with your search terms.
ü A first page of the picked article will display.
ü You should note that, for the full article to display, you need to look for PDF version which is at the top right corner of the page.
ü Click the Link PDF to Open the Full text of the article.
ü Now the E-journal is ready to use.

Tips on How to Access EBSCO HOST E-journal
To operate this website: EBSCO HOST, the following procedures are followed:
o Double click the internet explorer icon from the desktop
o In the address bar write the address of the website i.e. http://searchebscohost.com
o However you can access the EBSCO HOST e-journal library thorough this address: http://epnet.com. Which is EBSCO HOST access provider.
o A dialog box will appear requesting the user I.D and the password
o Fill the box appropriately with the User I.D, and the password.
o click on enter/login

EBSCO HOST home page appears with different categories of search, ranges from Academic search premier to Business search premier.

o Then click on Academic search premier, then click on publications, and type the journal of your choice e.g journal politics, journal of international law, journal of humanities etc and click search.

o A window will pop up displaying different publication of the journals that marched your query.

o Click on the highlighted journal to view the abstract containing name of the journal, title, publication, bibliographic record, ISSBN, year, volume issued etc.

For you to view the PDF-full text, select the year e.g 2006/2007 and if PDF refuse to open keep selecting ht year until it open. Once you open the PDF-full text you can read, download or print the article from the journal. This is how you access and operate EBSCO HOST e-journal library.

Note:
Some ISPs do not provide unlimited accounts, so people may tend to be stressed when surfing because they know the clock is ticking. Often, the best websites are so large that sitting and reading all of the materials is simply not possible in a single session. It is possible to save something for viewing at a later point in time to lessen the impact of non-online surfing.

References
Umar, H.A. Lecture note on internet and web design CIT, BUK

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/e-mail.

http://Jstor.com.com

www.e-journalsiteguide.ametasource.org.


HOW TO SEARCH FOR RECOURSES USING HINARI
By
Zainul Abideen Jibril

The Access to Research Initiative (HINARI) provides free or very low cost online access to the major journals in biomedical and related social sciences to local, not-for-profit institutions in developing countries.
HINARI was launched in January 2002, with some 1500 journals from 6 major publishers: Blackwell, Elsevier Science, the Harcourt Worldwide STM Group, Wolters Kluwer International Health & Science, Springer Verlag and John Wiley, following the principles in a Statement of Intent signed in July 2001. Since that time, the numbers of participating publishers and of journals and other full-text resources has grown continuously. Today more than 100 publishers are offering more than 5,500 journals in HINARI and others will soon be joining the program.

On your web browser’s address bar, type http://hinari-gw.who.int/ and hit Enter key

You are expected to see the page shown below

Enter the following:

User name: nie002
Password: 49318

Click on the logon tab.

A page will show in which you are to select from the categories of journal by subject displayed on the page.




After selecting, for example “social sciences (general)”, all journals related to social sciences will be displayed. Such as:


In this case, “annual review of political science” is selected.

The picture below show us how the annual political science review should be. Our next task is to enter what we are looking for in the search box. In this case, ‘political economy’ is entered. Click the search button to display the result. See diagram below


After the result is displayed, select the relevant among them and click on the title written in RED Colour. In this case, “THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE” is selected. After that, an abstract of the selected material is shown as in the diagram below
Click on the link ‘PDF’ to get the pdf version of the material or ‘full text’ to get HTML version.
Now it is left for you to print or save the material

TECHNIQUES OF BROWSING: COMMON PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

BY
Zainul Abideen Jibril

A browser is a program on your computer that enables you to search ("surf") and retrieve information on the WorldWideWeb (WWW), which is part of the Internet. The Web is simply a large number of computers linked together in a global network, that can be accessed using an address (URL, Uniform Resource Locator, e.g. http://www.buk.edu.ng/ for Bayero University, Kano), in the same way that you can phone anyone in the world given their telephone number.

URLs are often long and therefore easy to type incorrectly. They all begin with http://, and many (but not all) begin with http://www. In many cases the first part (http://, or even http://www.) can be omitted, and you will still be able to access the page. Try this with http://www.cnn.com.

URLs are constructed in a standard fashion. This may be of use to you. Take, for example, the address of this page:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasnost
The page you have accessed is called “Glasnost”, and it resides in a folder on the server called "internet", which is in the folder called "wiki". If the URL that you type does not work, and you have typed it correctly (no mistakes are allowed!), the reason may be that the host has renamed the web page, or moved it to another folder on the server. Try removing the text of the URL stepwise from the right-hand end in the example above, until you reach the main page, which in this case is: http://en.wikipedia.org. It is possible, in many cases, to find your way back down through the hierarchy to the page you were interested in.

You don't need to know how the telephone network functions to be able to make a phone call. However, you ought to know how to use your telephone apparatus and the finesses (software) it contains. Your computer is the equivalent of the telephone, and a browser is the equivalent of the software that modern telephones contain. (A browser can also be used to handle electronic mail, create, and edit information on the Internet, as I have done here, and to contact discussion groups. This presentation is limited to the use of browsers to surf the WorldWideWeb).

Searching The Web
If you don't know the telephone number of the person you wish to ring to, you need a telephone directory. The Web provides two methods of searching for pages providing information:
Ø Sites presenting web pages sorted by category and subcategories, e.g. Yahoo (several sites, including http://www.yahoo.com and http://www.yahoo.co.uk)
Ø sites offering search engines that return lists of web pages containing text that matches a search word or string, e.g. Google (http://www.google.com), AltaVista (http://www.altavista.com), Accoona (www.accoona.com) and FAST Search (http://www.alltheweb.com).

Many web sites offer both, or a combination of, these alternatives.

Before you conduct a search, it is important to consider, among others, the following points:

1. Is your choice of search term is adequate, too restrictive, or too general?
2. Is the search you have planned to undertake most suited for a search engine that categorizes web sites, so that you can browse through appropriate subcategories when the first results are returned?
3. Are you more interested in using a search engine that merely returns all the web pages it has found containing the search term?
4. Have you read the Search Help pages that most search pages offer? These will tell you how the search engine conducts the search, and therefore how you ought to plan your search.
5. Bear in mind the fact that engines differ in their coverage of the Internet, their speed and whether they are largely compiled manually by people or automatically by 'robots' that scan the Internet.

A search strategy must include knowledge of how the search engine you have planned to use handles Boolean Logic and other similar search terms, e.g.

Ø • Political AND economy will find all pages covering Political Economy, but not pages that only mention political Philosophy
Ø • Political NOT Economy will return pages on all fields other than Economy.
Ø • "Political Economy" will find pages that contain the phrase "Political Economy", i.e. where the words are adjacent in the text, but will not return a page containing the text "Political Theory, including Economy", for which Political NEAR Economy would be necessary
Ø •political* will return occurences of any thing political (thereby increasing your chances of finding pages you are interested in), but will also return pages featuring the word politics', which is probably not what you were looking for

It is important to note that not all search engines support all these options, some support many more, and all of them have a "default" function (e.g. AND or OR) which you must check before you start.


To illustrate the enormous implications that this may have for your search results, try out the following search strings in the AltaVista engine and note the number of web pages returned for each alternative:

ü Karl Marx
ü "Karl Marx"
ü Karl and Marx
ü KARL and MARX
ü Karl* Marx
ü Karl*Marx

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS ASSOCIATED TO WEB BROWSING

1. "The Page cannot be displayed" error

You may experience problems when you attempt to open a webpage by using your Internet browser where you receive the following message:
- The page cannot be displayed
- The page you are looking for is currently unavailable. The website might be experiencing technical difficulties, or you may need to adjust your browser settings.
- Error: Cannot find server or DNS Error

Solution
This problem can come about due to a number of reasons, some of which are addressed in the following steps:
Check that you are connected to the internet and test the connection on a few different websites such as http://www.google.co.uk and http://www.bbc.co.uk. If you can access another website address, the problems lie with the page you were trying to visit and you should contact the site owner directly to pursue this matter.

Delete your temporary Internet files and cookies. To do this, follow these steps:
- Click Start, and then click Control Panel
- Double-click Internet Options.
- Click the Temporary Internet Files, click the Settings button.
- Then click the Delete Cookies button and confirm this decision by clicking Yes at the next prompt.
- Next click the Delete Files button and confirm this decision by clicking Yes at the next prompt.

- Click OK to apply these settings.
- Now shutdown and restart your computer and test your connection to see if this has resolved the problem

2. Web browser crashes, fatal errors
Solution
Unknown, possible improper configuration of browser settings or software conflict
- If using Microsoft Internet Explorer, use an alternative web browser such as Mozilla, Opera

3. slow connection, connection times out.

Solutions:
- Stop downloading/uploading while surfing and see if there is an
improvement
- If speed connection is slow, contact your provider
4. Cannot enlarge pictures, open messages and any type of pop-up window

Solution:
Software, toolbar or a Windows Service Pack feature prevents pop-up windows from opening
- If using SP2 (Windows XP Service Pack 2), change parameters
- Check if an anti pop-up software or toolbar does not prevent pop-ups from opening.
Disable them one by one and see if there is any change, modify settings accordingly
- Check your firewall settings
5. “Your browser does not accept cookies”
Solution
Security settings are set too high and the cookies are considered as potentially unsafe by your web browser/antivirus software/firewall
- Set the cookie security settings to medium or low
- Disable your firewall/antivirus software and see if any change occurs. Modify settings accordingly
- Try another web browser such as Mozilla Firefox, Opera etc.
6. Cannot attach/upload images
Cause: wrong file format, image too big, slow connection
Solutions:
- Only supported files can be uploaded, check and make sure the format of your picture is supported.
- Use image editing software to change file format and reduce size
7. Impossible to log in, wrong password, access denied etc.
Solution
This can be Cookie problem (see « Your browser does not accept cookies ») or wrong password
- Make sure you are not using capital letters
- If your username and password are already stored on your computer and you do not need to type them to log in, delete all your cookies from the Internet options of your web browser.


REFERENCE
Umar, H.A. Lecture note on internet and web design CIT, BUK
http://oslovet.veths.com/teaching/internet/basics.html
http://www.tiscali.co.uk/help/broadband/nowebpage.html